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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
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<title>R Commands</title>
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<h1 class="title toc-ignore">R Commands</h1>
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<hr/>
<p><em>“For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn
by doing them.”</em></p>
<p>― Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics</p>
<p><br></p>
<hr/>
<div id="getting-started" class="section level2">
<h2>Getting Started</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> <a href="">Hover your mouse here to
begin.</a> <span class="tooltipRtext">Good work! <br/> This book
requires that you interact with it to learn. Hovering is the first step.
<br/> Now <a href="GettingStartedTutorial.html">click right here on
these words</a> to get started. </span> </span></p>
</div>
<br />
<hr />
</div>
<div id="the-help-command" class="section level2">
<h2><code>?</code> The Help Command</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p>Getting help in R is easy.</p>
<p><strong>Usage</strong></p>
<p><code>?something</code></p>
<ul>
<li>This command pulls up the help file for whatever you write in the
place of <code>something</code>.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Examples</strong></p>
<p>Click to view. Hover to learn.</p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('HelpOutput')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> ? <span class="tooltipRtext">The quick way to
access the help function in R.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
cars <span class="tooltipRtext">The name of a dataset can be typed to
open the help file for that dataset.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
</a>
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</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('HelpOutput2')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> ? <span class="tooltipRtext">The quick way to
access the help function in R.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
data <span class="tooltipRtext">The name of an R function, like
<code>data</code> can also be used to open the help file for that
function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
</a>
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</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('HelpOutput3')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> ? <span class="tooltipRtext">The quick way to
access the help function in R.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
mean <span class="tooltipRtext">The <code>mean</code> function computes
the mean of a column of quantitative data. Typing the name of an R
function, like <code>mean</code> can also be used to open the help file
for that function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="HelpOutput3" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/helpmean.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<hr />
</div>
<div id="dollar" class="section level2">
<h2><code>$</code> The Selection Operator</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p>Once you have a dataset, you need to be able to access columns from
it.</p>
<p><strong>Usage</strong></p>
<p><code>DataSetName$ColumnName</code></p>
<ul>
<li>The <code>$</code> operator allows you to access the individual
columns of a dataset.</li>
</ul>
<p><span style="font-size:.8em;">Tip: think of the data set as a “store”
from which you “purchase” a column using “money”:
<code>$</code>.</span></p>
<p><strong>Example Code</strong></p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('airqualityDollar')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> airquality <span class="tooltipRtext">The
<code>airqaulity</code> dataset. This could be the name of any dataset
instead of <code>airquality</code>.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> $ <span class="tooltipRtext"> Grabs the column, or
variable, from the dataset to be used. This is typically used when
computing say the mean (or other statistic) of a single column of the
data. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> Wind <span
class="tooltipRtext"> The name of any column of the dataset can be
entered after the dollar sign. In the airquality dataset, this includes:
<code>Ozone</code>, <code>Solar.R</code>, <code>Wind</code>,
<code>Temp</code>, <code>Month</code>, or <code>Day</code> as shown by
<code>View(airquality)</code>. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
<br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="airqualityDollar" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/airqualityDollar.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>This allows you to compute things about that column, like the mean or
standard deviation.</p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('airqualityDollarCompute')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> mean( <span class="tooltipRtext">The
<code>mean</code> function computes the mean of a column of quantitative
data.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> airquality <span
class="tooltipRtext">The <code>airquality</code> dataset. This could be
the name of any dataset instead of <code>airquality</code>.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr"> $ <span class="tooltipRtext"> Grabs the
column, or variable, from the dataset to be used. This is typically used
when computing say the mean (or other statistic) of a single column of
the data. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> Wind <span
class="tooltipRtext"> The name of any column of the dataset can be
entered after the dollar sign. In the airquality dataset, this includes:
<code>Ozone</code>, <code>Solar.R</code>, <code>Wind</code>,
<code>Temp</code>, <code>Month</code>, or <code>Day</code> as shown by
<code>View(airquality)</code>. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> )
<span class="tooltipRtext">Closing parenthesis to the mean()
function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="airqualityDollarCompute"
style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><em>9.958</em></p>
</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('airqualityDollarComputeSD')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> sd( <span class="tooltipRtext">The
<code>sd</code> function computes the standard deviation of a column of
quantitative data.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> airquality
<span class="tooltipRtext">The <code>airqaulity</code> dataset. This
could be the name of any dataset instead of
<code>airquality</code>.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> $ <span
class="tooltipRtext"> Grabs the column, or variable, from the dataset to
be used. This is typically used when computing say the mean (or other
statistic) of a single column of the data. </span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> Wind <span class="tooltipRtext"> The name of any
column of the dataset can be entered after the dollar sign. In the
airquality dataset, this includes: <code>Ozone</code>,
<code>Solar.R</code>, <code>Wind</code>, <code>Temp</code>,
<code>Month</code>, or <code>Day</code> as shown by
<code>View(airquality)</code>. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> )
<span class="tooltipRtext">Closing parenthesis to the sd()
function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="airqualityDollarComputeSD"
style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><em>3.523</em></p>
</div>
<p>See <a href="NumericalSummaries.html">Numerical Summaries</a> for
more stats functions like <code>mean()</code> and <code>sd()</code>.</p>
</div>
<br />
<hr />
</div>
<div id="assignment" class="section level2">
<h2><code><-</code> The Assignment Operator</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p>Being able to save your work is important!</p>
<p><strong>Usage</strong> Keyboard Shortcut: <code>Alt</code>
<code>-</code></p>
<p><code>NameYouCreate <- some R commands</code></p>
<ul>
<li><code><-</code> (Less than symbol <code><</code> with a hyphen
<code>-</code>) is called the assignment operator and lets you store the
results of the <code>some R commands</code> into an object called
<code>NameYouCreate</code>.</li>
<li><code>NameYouCreate</code> is any name that <em>begins with a
letter</em>, but can use numbers, periods, and underscores thereafter.
To use spaces in the name, you must use `<code>your Name</code>` encased
in back-ticks, but this is not recommended.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Example Code</strong></p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('NamingCars1')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> cars2 <span class="tooltipRtext">First we
name the object we are creating. In this case, we are making a copy of
the cars dataset, so it is logical to call it <code>cars2</code>, but it
could be <code>bob</code>, <code>c2</code> or any name you wanted to
use. Just be careful to not use names that are already in use! </span>
</span><span class="tooltipr"> <- <span class="tooltipRtext"> The
<code><-</code> assignment operator will take whatever is on the
right hand side and save it into the name written on the left hand side.
</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> cars <span
class="tooltipRtext">In this case the <code>cars</code> dataset is being
copied to <code>cars2</code> so that we can change <code>cars2</code>
without changing the original <code>cars</code> dataset.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span></p>
<p></span><span class="tooltipr"> cars2 <span class="tooltipRtext">The
new copy of the <code>cars</code> dataset that we just created</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr"> $ftpersec <span class="tooltipRtext">The
<code>$</code> selection operator can be used to create a new column in
a dataset when used with the <code><-</code> assignment operator.
</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <- <span
class="tooltipRtext">The <code><-</code> assignment operator will
take the results of the right-hand-side and save them into the name on
the left-hand-side. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> cars2$speed *
5280 / 3600 <span class="tooltipRtext">This calculation converts the
miles per hour of the <code>cars2</code> <code>speed</code> column into
feet per seconds because there are 5280 feet in a mile and 60 minutes in
an hour and 60 seconds in a minute.</span> </span></p>
<p></span><span class="tooltipr"> View(cars2) <span
class="tooltipRtext">The <code>cars2</code> dataset now contains a 3rd
column called <code>feetpersec</code>. Compare this to the original
<code>cars</code> dataset to see how it changed.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;"> Click to Show
Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View Output.</span>
</span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="NamingCars1" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/carsNewColumn.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<hr />
</div>
<div id="cvector" class="section level2">
<h2>c( ) The Combine Function</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p>Think of this function as the “back-pack” function, just like putting
different books into one back-pack.</p>
<p><strong>Usage</strong></p>
<p><code>c(value 1, value 2, value 3, ... )</code></p>
<ul>
<li>The <code>c( )</code> function combines <code>values</code> into a
single object called a “vector”.</li>
<li><code>values 1, 2, 3, ...</code> can be numbers or characters, i.e.,
words, but must be all of one type or the other.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Example Code</strong></p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('cVector')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> Classlist <- <span
class="tooltipRtext"><code>Classlist</code> is a new object being
created using the assignment operator <code><-</code> that will
contain the four names listed above.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> c( <span class="tooltipRtext">The combine function
<code>c( )</code> is being used in this case to group character values
representing names of students into a single object named “Classlist”.
</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> “Jackson”, “Jared”, “Jill”,
“Jane”) <span class="tooltipRtext"> These are the values we are grouping
into the object named <code>Classlist</code>. </span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span></p>
<p><span class="tooltipr"> Ages <- <span class="tooltipRtext">The
assignment operator <code><-</code> is being used to create the
object called <code>Ages</code> that will contain the ages of each
student on the <code>Classlist</code>. </span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> c( <span class="tooltipRtext">The R function “c()”
allows us to group together values in order to save them into an object.
</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> 8, 9, 7, 8 <span
class="tooltipRtext"> The values, separated by comma’s, that are being
grouped together. In this case, numbers are being grouped together.
</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> ) <span
class="tooltipRtext">Always close off your functions in R with a closing
parathesis.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span></p>
<p><span class="tooltipr"> Colors <- <span class="tooltipRtext">The
assignment operator <code><-</code> is being used to create the
object called <code>Colors</code> that will have one color for each
student on the <code>Classlist</code>. </span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> c( <span class="tooltipRtext">The R function “c()”
allows us to group together values in order to save them into an object.
</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> “red”, “blue”, “green”, “yellow”
<span class="tooltipRtext"> The values, separated by comma’s, that are
being grouped together. In this case, characters are being grouped
together. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> ) <span
class="tooltipRtext">Always close off your functions in R with a closing
parathesis.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="cVector" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/cVector.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<hr />
</div>
<div id="table" class="section level2">
<h2>table( )</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p>This is a way to quickly count how many times each value occurs in a
column or columns.</p>
<p><strong>Usage</strong></p>
<p><code>table(NameOfDataset$columnName)</code></p>
<p><code>table(NameOfDataset$columnName1, NameOfDataset$columnName2)</code></p>
<ul>
<li>The <code>table( )</code> function counts how many times each
<code>value</code> in a column of data occurs.</li>
<li><code>NameOfDataset</code> is the ane of a data set, like
<code>cars</code> or <code>airquality</code> or
<code>KidsFeet</code>.</li>
<li><code>columnName</code> is the name of a column from the data
set.</li>
<li><code>columnName1</code> and <code>columnName2</code> are two
different names of columns from the data set.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Example Code</strong></p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('table1')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> speedCounts <-<br />
<span class="tooltipRtext"><code>speedCounts</code> is a new object
being created using the assignment operator <code><-</code> that will
contain the counts of how many times each “speed” occurs in the
<code>cars</code> data set speed column.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> table( <span class="tooltipRtext">The table function
<code>table( )</code> is being used in this case to count how many times
each speed occurs in the cars data set speed column. </span>
</span><span class="tooltipr"> cars <span class="tooltipRtext"> This is
the name of the data set. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> $ <span
class="tooltipRtext">The $ is used to access a given column from the
data set.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> speed <span
class="tooltipRtext">This is the name of the column we are interested in
from the cars data set.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> ) <span
class="tooltipRtext">Always close off your functions in R with a closing
parathesis.</span> </span><br/><span class="tooltipr"> speedCounts <span
class="tooltipRtext">Typing the name of an object will print the results
to the screen.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="table1" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<pre><code>##
## 4 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 23 24 25
## 2 2 1 1 3 2 4 4 4 3 2 3 4 3 5 1 1 4 1</code></pre>
<p>Notice how the speed of “4” occurs 2 times, same for the speed of 7,
but the speed of 8 only occurs 1 time and so on with the other speeds.
The first row of the output is the value from the speed column. The
number on the second line shows how many times that value occurred in
the speed column.</p>
</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('table2')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> library(mosaic) <span class="tooltipRtext"
style="font-size:.8em;"><code>library(mosaic)</code> is needed to access
the KidsFeet data set that is used in this example. If you don’t have
the mosaic library, you will need to run
<code>install.packages("mosaic")</code> to install it first. From then
on, you can open mosaic to use it with the command library(mosaic). You
need only install packages once. You must library them each time you
wish to use them.</span> </span><br/><span class="tooltipr"> birthdays
<-<br />
<span class="tooltipRtext"><code>birthdays</code> is a new object being
created using the assignment operator <code><-</code> that will
contain the counts of how many birthdays occur in each month for each
gender in the KidsFeet dataset.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
table( <span class="tooltipRtext">The table function
<code>table( )</code> is being used in this case to count how many
birthdays occur in each month for children of each gender.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr"> KidsFeet <span class="tooltipRtext"> This
is the name of the data set.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> $
<span class="tooltipRtext">The $ is used to access a given column from
the data set.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> sex <span
class="tooltipRtext">This is the name of the column we are interested in
becoming the rows of our final table.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> , <span class="tooltipRtext">Comma separating the two
columns of the data set you want to table.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> KidsFeet <span class="tooltipRtext"> This is the name
of the data set.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> $ <span
class="tooltipRtext">The $ is used to access a given column from the
data set.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> birthmonth <span
class="tooltipRtext">This is the name of the column we are interested in
becoming the columns of our final table.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> ) <span class="tooltipRtext">Always close off your
functions in R with a closing parathesis.</span> </span><br/><span
class="tooltipr"> birthdays <span class="tooltipRtext">Typing the name
of an object will print the results to the screen.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="table2" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<pre><code>##
## 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
## B 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2
## G 1 1 5 1 1 3 1 0 3 1 1 1</code></pre>
<p>The left column contains the “sex” values of “B” and “G” (Boy and
Girl).</p>
<p>The top row contains the birthmonths (1 through 12).</p>
<p>The numbers within the row of the table next to the “B” show how many
Boys had birthdays in each month of the year.</p>
<p>The numbers within the row of the table next to the “G” show how many
Girls had birthdays in each month of the year.</p>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<hr />
</div>
<div id="filter" class="section level2">
<h2>filter( )</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p>Used to reduce a dataset to a smaller set of rows than the original
dataset contained.</p>
<p><strong>Usage</strong></p>
<p><code>filter(NameOfDataset, columnName filteringRules)</code></p>
<ul>
<li><code>filter()</code> is the function that filters out certain rows
of the dataset.</li>
<li><code>NameOfDataset</code> is the name of a dataset, like
<code>cars</code> or <code>airquality</code> or
<code>KidsFeet</code>.</li>
<li><code>columnName</code> is the name of one of the columns from the
dataset. You can use <code>colnames(NameOfDataset)</code> or
<code>View(NameOfDataset)</code> to see the names.</li>
<li><code>filteringRules</code> consists of some <strong>Logical
Expression</strong> (see table below) that selects only the rows from
the original dataset that meet the criterion.</li>
</ul>
<div style="padding-left:30px;">
<table>
<colgroup>
<col width="78%" />
<col width="21%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th><strong>Filtering Rule</strong></th>
<th><strong>Logical Expression</strong></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Equals one “thing”</td>
<td><code>columnName</code> <code>==</code> <code>something</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Equals Any Of Several “things”</td>
<td><code>columnName</code> <code>%in%</code>
<code>c(something1,something2,...)</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Not Equal (one thing)</td>
<td><code>columnName</code> <code>!=</code> <code>something</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Not Equals Any of (several things)</td>
<td><code>!columnName</code> <code>%in%</code>
<code>c(something1,something2,...)</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Less Than</td>
<td><code>columnName</code> <code><</code> <code>value</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Less Then or Equal to</td>
<td><code>columnName</code> <code><=</code> <code>value</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Greater Than</td>
<td><code>columnName</code> <code>></code> <code>value</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Greater Than or Equal to</td>
<td><code>columnName</code> <code>>=</code> <code>value</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>AND</td>
<td><code>expression1</code> <code>&</code>
<code>expression2</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>OR</td>
<td><code>expression1</code> <code>|</code>
<code>expression2</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Equals <code>NA</code></td>
<td><code>is.na(columnName)</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Not <code>NA</code></td>
<td><code>!is.na(columnName)</code></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p><strong>Example Code</strong></p>
<a href="">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> library(tidyverse) <span
class="tooltipRtext">The tidyverse library is needed to access the
filter function used in the following example codes.</span>
</span><br/><span class="tooltipr"> library(mosaic) <span
class="tooltipRtext">The mosaic library is needed to access the KidsFeet
data set used in the following example codes.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<p><br/></p>
<p><em>Equals one “thing”</em>…</p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('filterEqual')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> Kids87 <- <span
class="tooltipRtext">Kids87 is a name we made up. The assignment
operator <code><-</code> will save the reduced version of the
<code>KidsFeet</code> dataset created by the <code>filter(...)</code>
function into this name.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
filter(KidsFeet, <span class="tooltipRtext">“filter” is a function
from library(tidyverse) that reduces the number of rows in the KidsFeet
dataset by filtering according to certain criteria. Click on this code
to see the original and filtered datasets.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> birthyear <span class="tooltipRtext">A quantitative
column of the KidsFeet dataset that we want to use to reduce the
dataset.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> == 87 <span